Exploring cyclists’ and pedestrians’ personal exposure, wellbeing and protective practices on-the-move

In dieser Doktorarbeit wurde untersucht, welche Faktoren Wohlbefinden, wahrgenommene Gesundheit und Mobilitätspraktiken von Radfahrenden und Fußgänger:innen während des Unterwegsseins beeinflussen. Ziel war es, die persönliche Exposition gegenüber Feinstaub und Lärm unterwegs zu messen und diese der individuell wahrgenommenen Belastung gegenüberzustellen. Zudem wurden weitere Faktoren, die das Wohlbefinden beeinflussen, untersucht. Die Arbeit beleuchtet überdies, wie über gesunde und angenehme Mobilität informiert werden könnte. Zuerst wurden mobile qualitative Interviews (Go-/Ride-Alongs) durchgeführt und mit tragbaren Sensoren zur Messung von Feinstaub und Lärm ergänzt. Der situative Kontext, die sensorische Wahrnehmung und soziale Aspekte beeinflussen, ob das Unterwegsseins in der Stadt als gesund und angenehm empfunden wird. Diese Faktoren können in vergleichsweise als hoch belastend gemessenen Situationen ausgleichend wirken. Weiterhin wurden Informationsmöglichkeiten für eine gesunde Mobilität in der Stadt exploriert. Ein Literaturreview hat aufgezeigt, dass Gesundheitsthemen wenig Berücksichtigung in Forschung zu Mobilitäts-Apps finden. Daran anschließend wurden Fokusgruppen durchgeführt. Es wurde ermittelt, wie gesunde und angenehme Routen kommuniziert werden können. Hier könnendas Vorhandensein von Routenalternativen und Bewältigungsstrategien ein Gefühl von Selbstwirksamkeit geben. Es wurde eine „pleasant routing app“ vorgeschlagen, die angenehme und gesunde Routenaspekte integriert. Um die Attraktivität des Fahrradfahrens und zu Fuß Gehens zu steigern, sollten Erfahrungen, Wahrnehmungen und Praktiken von Radfahrenden und Fußgänger:innen berücksichtigt werden. Letztendlich kann somit aktive Mobilität ihr Potenzial entfalten und zu einer lebenswerten, gesunden und umweltfreundlichen Stadt beitragen.This thesis investigates factors influencing cyclists’ and pedestrians’ health and wellbeing on-the-move. Moreover, the possibilities of smartphone apps for supporting a healthy and pleasant trip are investigated. The scope of this thesis is to combine the topic healthy and pleasant mobility with possibilities of mobility apps. First, the thesis explores how cyclists and pedestrians perceive their personal exposure towards air pollution and noise as well as other factors influencing commuting experience and wellbeing on-the-move. This is contrasted to actual measured particulate matter and noise. Qualitative interviews on-the-move (‘go-/ride-alongs’) are complemented by wearable sensors measuring particulate matter and noise. The results show discrepancies as well as coherences between perceived and measured exposure. The situational context, sensory awareness (e.g. water views) and social cues (e.g. seeing other people) are important for a perceived pleasant commute, even in polluted areas. Second, this thesis identifies how far health impacting factors are considered in research using mobility apps to identify their possibilities for supporting a healthy commute. A literature review reveals that research applying mobility apps is lacking the consideration of health topics and it is proposed to integrate health topics in mobility app development. Following these findings, the thesis investigates communication options to inform about a healthy and pleasant commute. Focus groups were applied showing that information should include feasible coping strategies and increase self-efficacy. Pleasant trip characteristics could be included in a healthy mobility app. If active mode users’ experiences, perceptions and practices are considered, cycling and walking can become more attractive and more people are encouraged to cycle or walk. Hence, active modes can unfold their potential for supporting the transformation towards liveable, healthy and environmentally friendly cities

Promoting Sustainable Mobility: To What Extent Is “Health” Considered by Mobility App Studies? A Review and a Conceptual Framework

Promoting cycling and walking in cities improves individual health and wellbeing and, together with public transport, promotes societal sustainability patterns. Recently, smartphone apps informing and motivating sustainable mobility usage have increased. Current research has applied and investigated these apps; however, none have specifically considered mobility-related health components within mobility apps. The aim of this study is to examine the (potential) role of health-related information provided in mobility apps to influence mobility behavior. Following a systematic literature review of empirical studies applying mobility apps, this paper (1) investigates the studies and mobility apps regarding communicated information, strategies, and effects on mobility behavior and (2) explores how, and to what extent, health and its components are addressed. The reviewed studies focus on environmental information, especially CO2-emissions. Health is represented by physical activity or calories burned. The self-exposure to air pollution, noise, heat, traffic injuries or green spaces is rarely addressed. We propose a conceptual framework based on protection motivation theory to include health in mobility apps for sustainable mobility behavior change. Addressing people’s self-protective motivation could empower mobility app users. It might be a possible trigger for behavior change, leading towards healthy and sustainable mobility and thus, have individual and societal benefits.Peer Reviewe

Impacts of Personalized Sensor Feedback Regarding Exposure to Environmental Stressors

Feedback on personal exposure to air pollution, noise or extreme temperatures through wearable sensors or sensors installed at home or in the workplace can offer information that might motivate behaviours to mitigate exposure. As personal measurement devices are becoming increasingly accessible, it is important to evaluate the effects of such sensors on human perception and behaviour. We conducted a systematic literature research and identified 33 studies, analysing the effects of personal feedback on air pollution, noise and temperatures. Feedback was given through reports including different forms of visualization, in-person or over the telephone, or directly on the sensor or through a phone app. The exposure feedback led to behaviour changes particularly for noise and temperature feedback while findings on behaviour adaptation to avoid air pollution were mixed. Most studies reported increased awareness and knowledge from receiving exposure feedback. Many participants in studies on air pollution reported low levels of self-efficacy regarding exposure mitigation. For a better understanding of the effects of personal exposure feedback, more studies are required, particularly providing feedback from wearable sensors measuring outdoor air pollution, noise and temperature

Informing about the invisible: communicating en route air pollution and noise exposure to cyclists and pedestrians using focus groups

Active mobility and public transport are considered beneficial for health and wellbeing and valuable for climate change mitigation. However, cyclists and pedestrians have high air pollution and noise exposure alongside traffic, which adversely impact health and wellbeing. The measured exposure can differ from the perceived exposure, hence, communicating en route exposure is crucial. Therefore, this study investigates how to communicate route-based exposure to cyclists and pedestrians and explores if exposure communication, e.g. via smartphones, is worthwhile for healthy and pleasant commute. It is investigated how exposure feedback influences the motivation to protect oneself and how exposure information should be designed. Three focus groups with 20 cyclists/pedestrians living in Berlin, Germany, were conducted. Based on Protection Motivation Theory and Environmental Health Literacy concept, (1) experiences and practices after recognizing exposure were discussed and (2) information needs and communication strategies were developed. The results reveal a feeling of helplessness regarding the ubiquity and uncertainty of pollution and a heightened threat appraisal. Anger, anxiety and rejection were stated. Making sense of pollution levels and protective alternatives were central. A healthy routing app, including also pleasant route factors, was desired. However, information provision was also denied. Participants argued the responsibility should not be left to the commuters and planning for exposed road users would be crucial. Information provision may not be worthwhile if planning authorities do not provide healthy alternatives. People-centered approaches for tackling air pollution and noise exposure en route should be investigated further

Experiences of safe and healthy walking and cycling in urban areas: The benefits of mobile methods for citizen-adapted urban planning

Walking and cycling promotes physical activity and mental health. In many European cities, walking and cycling has increased and is a key part of transport planning. However, many cyclists and pedestrians still perceive themselves as neglected road users, face air pollutants, noise and fear travel injuries. Children are in particular vulnerable. The aim of this study is to present mobile interview methods (“go-/ride-alongs”) for promoting safe and healthy cycling/walking in urban transport planning. We present two studies from Berlin (a) and Leipzig (b), Germany. We conducted go-/ride-alongs with cyclists and pedestrians on (a) their commute home from work and (b) children on their way to school. We accompanied them and investigated how they experience commuting, the environment and discover ad-hoc situative behavior. We discuss our findings and transfer our knowledge gained through the mobile method into transport planning strategies. Safety is most often mentioned by all interviewees. Our studies show a high importance of in-situ/ad-hoc experiences for travel behavior, which can be examined with an interviewer accompanying. Our methods encourage interviewees to describe past experiences, how they shape their behavior or factors supporting/hindering active travel. We consider mobile methods important for exploring mobility and successful when complemented by participatory methods and instruments (e.g. participatory mapping, smartphone-apps, group walks). Therefore, the voice of vulnerable road users can be strengthened. In a next step individual local experiences and community knowledge could be incorporated in urban transport planning to improve active travel

Combining “Ride-Alongs” and Wearable Sensors to Study Perceptions and Exposure En Route

Background: Active mobility is specifically beneficial for health and wellbeing of urban dwellers. However, while people actively move around in urban traffic, they are exposed to urban stressors such as air pollution and noise, which adversely impact health and wellbeing. Traditionally, exposure research is based on objective measurements or model simulations. The subjective experience of exposure is rarely considered and typically assessed by post-hoc questionnaires, thus, neglecting the momentary environmental stimuli experienced in traffic. This study addresses this research gap by exploring experiences and health perceptions while walking/cycling. The aim is to examine en route experiences and perceived exposure, reveal in-situ actions and discover cyclists’/pedestrians’ avoidance strategies to reduce health risks and improve wellbeing. Methods: We developed a novel mixed methods approach: (1) Go-/Ride-alongs with 28 participants in Berlin, Germany, were conducted. We accompanied participants on their daily way from work to home, applied a semi-structured questionnaire while cycling/walking and discovered participants’ experiences, actions and perceptions on-site. (2) Simultaneously, noise (dB(A)), GPS and air pollution (particle number concentrations of PM 0.5-2.5µm) were registered with wearable sensors and situations captured photographically. Using qualitative GIS approaches, we combined the objective exposure data with subjective perceptions. Results: The measured exposure was not always in line with the perceived exposure. We explored the reasons for these differences by accompanying the interviewees. Situations with high noise or air pollution levels were sometimes evaluated as comfortable due to visual experiences en route (e.g. greenery, water, urban aesthetics, entertainment) or positive attitudes (e.g. close to home, end of work, memories). High sound levels cannot always be interpreted as noise: e.g. musicians in the subway or birds/leaves in parks are perceived positively, even though the measured noise may be high. Streets with high traffic volume lead to perceived noise and air pollution, anger and distress – being in line with measurements. We also revealed the importance of “hidden paths” to avoid exposure and actions to decrease exposure impacts (e.g. increase distance to emitters at traffic lights). Emotions (e.g. anger, resignation, irritation) were articulated when experiencing exposure. Conclusions: Our results indicate the importance of on-site perceptions. Therefore, future studies of cyclists/pedestrians should consider exposure, health perceptions and experiences jointly. For addressing the complex interrelation of active mobility and health, mobile methods such as Go-/Ride-Alongs or participatory mapping approaches can be beneficial and should receive greater attention in transport planning for healthier mobility

Extending the dimensions of personal exposure assessment: A methodological discussion on perceived and measured noise and air pollution in traffic

Background The exposure to air pollution and noise is severely impacting people's health and is especially high alongside urban road- and rail-traffic. In traditional exposure research, air pollution and noise are monitored with stationary measurement devices or based on models. During the last years, mobile measurement techniques with GPS-tracking have increased. Moreover, studies have investigated another dimension of personal exposure: the perceived exposure. Aim Most of these studies make use of quantitative methods such as surveys, complemented by stationary or wearable sensors. Little research exist that applies qualitative methods to examine how people experience and perceive exposure on-the-move, contrasting it to actual measurements. The aim of this paper is to discuss the potential of a novel method, which extends the dimensions of personal exposure by including the situational context of exposure perception. Methods/case study Firstly, different methods for exposure research are presented. Secondly, we introduce a novel mixed-method approach, exploring cyclists and pedestrians perceived and measured exposure on-the-move by combining mobile interviews (Go-/Ride-Alongs) and wearable sensors. We will present the methodological findings using a case study and have a quantitative method (smartphone questionnaire, wearable sensors) as a reference. Results and discussion The differences of perceived and measured exposure, proven through the reference method, are a result of different situational contexts as shown by the mobile interviews (knowledge, embodied experience, life situation, activities). The methodological findings show, that mobile methods complemented by wearables introduce new dimensions of personal exposure: they shed light on the situational contexts that affect exposure perception during commute. Conclusion We argue that both, perceived and measured exposure to air pollution and noise, need to be considered simultaneously. Complementing mobile interviews or surveys with wearable sensor data improves the understanding of urban dwellers requirements for healthier mobility. Potentials of these methods should be investigated further, both in research and for supporting urban transport planning decisions adapted to people's needs

How are air pollution and noise perceived en route? Investigating cyclists’ and pedestrians’ personal exposure, wellbeing and practices during commute

Background Commuting by bicycle or on foot is beneficial for health and wellbeing. However, cycling and walking alongside road traffic poses the risk of air pollution and noise exposure. Traditionally, exposure research is based on objective measurements. Only recently have subjective perceptions gained attention. The perceived exposure to air pollution and noise en route and the momentary sensory awareness in traffic has rarely been investigated. This study addresses this research gap. The aim was to examine cyclists’/pedestrians’ sensory awareness, perceived and measured exposure, and practices to reduce health risks and improve wellbeing en route. Methods A mixed-methods approach was applied: (1) go-/ride-alongs with 28 participants in Berlin, Germany, were conducted. Cyclists/pedestrians were accompanied on their commute home from work. Meanwhile, a semi-structured qualitative interview during cycling/walking was applied to discover experiences, practices and perceptions on-site. (2) Simultaneously, noise (dB(A)), GPS and air pollution (particulate matter) were registered with wearable sensors. Results Measured exposure was partly in line with perceived exposure. However, some situations with high exposure were evaluated as positive due to sensory awareness (greenery/water, urban aesthetics) or social cues (other people, neighborhood areas). Community feelings, aesthetic/interesting urban form and passing people who perform leisure activities and, thus, take ownership of their city, improved a pleasant commute. Using hidden paths to include greenery and protective practices (e.g., increasing the distance from emitters) were examined. Conclusions Cyclists and pedestrians are directly exposed to their environment, which jointly influences health and wellbeing. Air pollution and noise need to be addressed, as do exposure perceptions and other sensory experiences. Passing community areas, having an interesting trip, seeing/smelling blue and green spaces, and the quietness associated with these experiences improve a cyclist’s/pedestrian’s wellbeing during their commute. Further research on how to plan for and communicate about healthy and pleasant routes is needed

The planned and the perceived city: a comparison of cyclists’ and decision-makers’ views on cycling quality

Traffic jams, congestion and pollution demand sustainable modes of transport. To increase the appeal of cycling, bicycle-users’ perceptions and needs should be acknowledged by decision-makers. However, traditional transport planning mainly focuses on quantitative, infrastructural data. To address this research gap, this study explores to what extent decision-makers are aware of cyclists’ needs and perceptions. Furthermore, the study compares the assessments about cycling of decision-makers and cyclists in Leipzig, Germany. Methods Qualitative Interviews with 13 cyclists and similarly structured interviews with 6 experts from politics and planning were compared using qualitative content analysis. Two main topics were examined: (1) the reasons for cycling and (2) the perceived environment (built, natural and individually perceived). To integrate the spatial context, the interviewees draw sketch maps which were analyzed and compared using geo-information systems. Results Experts assume that main roads with cycling infrastructure are decisive for fast and safe cycling and cyclists agree with this statement. However, cyclists further refer to the positive effects of green spaces, the experience of the natural environment (e.g. fresh air) as well as the healthy and recreational effect of cycling. Cyclists prefer taking side roads and are prepared to use detours to integrate the natural environment and avoid traffic jams, noise and air pollution – these aspects were rarely acknowledged by decision-makers. Discussion We conclude that urban planners need to involve cyclists’ perceptions more explicitly. Integrating cyclists’ experiences in planning processes using sketch maps and interviews have added value, complementing quantitative approaches to enhance the understanding of cyclist behavior. The findings are essential to promote a sustainable, healthy and environmentally friendly urban development appropriate to citizens’ needs